Reading skill 8

                   

                                               Bronze Age

              The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were better than previously possible. Tools, weapons, armor, and various building materials, like decorative tiles, made of bronze were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors. Initially bronze was made out of copper and arsenic to form arsenic bronze, or directly from naturally or artificially mixed ores of those. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the sole type of major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process itself could more easily be controlled and the alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike arsenic, tin is not toxic.

The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late 4th millennium BC in Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in China, Luristan (Iran) and Mesopotamia(Iraq).^{[citation needed]}

Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron, with Vickers hardness of 60–258^[6] vs. 30–80,^[7] the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age because iron was easier to find and to process into a poor grade of metal; although it can be made into higher grades, doing that takes significantly more effort and skill. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age.

There are many different bronze alloys but modern bronze is typically 88% copper and 12% tin.^[10] Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic with an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins.

Bronze statues

See also: Bronze sculpture

Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu, used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the Gods of Hinduism mostly, but also the lifestyle of the period. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai.

The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704-681BC) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method.

In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of the Kingdom of Benin; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures fromGreek mythology; in east Asia, Chinese bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty — more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples.

Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary.

Bronze Age
   

               Good morning, teacher and my friends. My name is Areena Uma. Today, I would like to talk about Bronze Age in Greece. They used knife, spear and sword for hunting. Bronze Age began about 6,000 – 2,800 years ago. The people lived about 500,000 in the Bronze Age. Bronze Age was amazing because human lived in the small society and use many tools for hunting. People could live for fifty years old.

              In Bronze Age, there were technologies for to live. People constructed building with stone. Tools and weapons were made from metal. Humans in Bronze Age  used technology for hunting such as ax or spear. Making pottery such as several pots, dish. Using shell and bone for decorating such as bracelet, small beads. Human lived in the cave and nearly the river.

  

    Aristotle was a famous person who lived in ancient Greece. His writings cover many subjects. Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system. They lived in the village and in the city.  His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic.

               Conclusion, I have learned that people in Bronze Age and learn about how to build house, and weave clothes. If I lived in the Bronze Age, I would like to build the big house and created a good environment.

Learning log 7

In the classroom.

           Today, I arrive to the class before the teacher. In the class, teacher give task for me about observation  when go to the school in 19-30 August, 2013. There are many things that me must do and plan for going to school on 19-30 August, 2013. Then, when teacher explain about them finish, teacher give 4 students show Syllabus and explain about it. Now, I know concept about making Syllabus more. I think, if I don’t see.

          Teacher tell about  task for observation at school. I know many things that I must do when I go to school. I must observe about lesson, teacher, students, and environment in classroom, school and anything. I think, I must observe teaching of teacher in the first and observe the student too. So, I would like to observe technique of teaching and using material in the classroom. Teacher give information to students.

        To sum up, I think, in the classroom today is very important for me and my friends because it important in my observe in the school. I will do or observe something that important.

 

Reading skill 7

The Stone Age in archaeology

Beginning of the Stone Age]

In 2010, fossilised animal bones bearing marks from stone tools were found in the Lower Awash Valley in Ethiopia. Discovered by an international team led by Shannon McPherron, at 3.4 million years old they are the oldest evidence of stone tool use ever found anywhere in the world.^[1]

The oldest known stone tools have been excavated from several sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo-Awash River, which serve to date them. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, which would have been from 2.9 to 2.7 mya. The oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2.6–2.55 mya.^[4] One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, where previous to their discovery tools were thought to have evolved only in the Pleistocene. Rogers and Semaw, excavators at the locality, point out that:^[5]

"...the earliest stone tool makers were skilled flintknappers .... The possible reasons behind this seeming abrupt transition from the absence of stone tools to the presence thereof include ... gaps in the geological record."

The excavators are confident that more tools will be found elsewhere from 2.9 mya. The species who made the Pliocene tools remains unknown. Fragments ofAustralopithecus garhi, Australopithecus aethiopicus^[6] and Homo, possibly Homo habilis, have been found in sites near the age of the oldest tools.^[7]

End of the Stone Age[edit source | edit]

Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age and began the Bronze Age. The first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper, but did not yet manufacture bronze, a time known as the Copper Age, or more technically the Chalcolithic, "copper-stone" age. The Chalcolithic by convention is the initial period of the Bronze Age and is unquestionably part of the Age of Metals. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age. During this entire time stone remained in use in parallel with the metals for some objects, including those also used in the Neolithic, such as stone pottery.

The transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500 BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia. The first evidence of human metallurgy dates to between the 5th and 6th millennium BCE in the archaeological sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Pločnik (a copper axe from 5500 BCE belonging to the Vincha culture), though not conventionally considered part of the Chalcolithic or "Copper Age", this provides the earliest known example of copper metallurgy.^[8] and the Rudna Glava mine in Serbia. Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife.

In regions such as Subsaharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age. The Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE. The proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance, the rest following later. Australia remained in the Stone Age until the 17th century. Stone tool manufacture continued. In Europe and North America,millstones were in use until well into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world.

Tools[edit source | editbeta]

Stone tools were made from a variety of stone. For example, flint and chert were shaped (or chipped) for use as cutting tools and weapons, while basalt and sandstone were used for ground stonetools, such as quern-stones. Wood, bone, shell, antler (deer) and other materials were widely used, as well. During the most recent part of the period, sediments (such as clay) were used to make pottery. Agriculture was developed and certain animals were domesticated.

Some species of non-Primates are able to use stone tools, such as the Sea Otter, which breaks Abalone shells with them. Primates can both use and manufacture stone tools. This combination of abilities is more marked in apes and men, but only men, or more generally Hominans, depend on tool use for survival.^[56] The key anatomical and behavioral features required for tool manufacture, which are possessed only by Hominans, are the larger thumb and the ability to hold by means of an assortment of grips

Stone Age

           “Stone Age”  humans were the same as us, because  They had a family, language “Stone age” humans were different from us,  because they did not have house, technology and science. Stone Age in Thai more 500,000 – 10,000 years ago, it was the Stone Age of Thailand. People lived by using stone tools to hunt wild animals. There were more 350,000 bodies in the Stone Age. The Stone Age was so interesting because people could make tools from Stone and live in a cave. They could live for forty years old.

          There were technologies in the Stone Age. People in the Stone Age also used stone tools for doing farming and used technology  for Using to hunting such as ax, trap, fire, axe, knife, and spear. About housing in the Stone Age, people lived in cave, had small trip nearly a river.        

           Muza lived in the Stone Age. He never took a bath, brushed teeth. He had a big teeth and it has very smell because he ate all animal. She could live in cave or nearly river and hunting all the time when he want.

           Conclusion, the Stone Age was the first starting for living in the world. They can create many tools from stone and hunt wild animals. They could live in cave. They did not have house, technology and science, for their live. In my opinion, I need to find new tools for hunting in Stone Age.